Rabies Info

Recently, local news has reported that there is a rabies outbreak in Kuching, Sarawak which has resulted in 3 victims who are now in the ICU. Dogs are being captured and probably killed next. Some animal lovers are disheartened and saying this is not the right way to kill dogs, some sarcastic people are asking animal lovers to heal the dogs, while some animal haters are asking to kill all dogs on the street. There are also people who are not very educated about rabies, and they kept harping about killing cats too as cats can also have rabies (based on their google search). Some other people added on by saying that bats, guinea pigs, hamsters, rabbits can also have rabies.

Let me educate you people about rabies.

1. What is rabies???

Rabies is a viral disease that is caused the virus Lyssavirus. It is transmitted to humans through the saliva of infected animals, usually through wounds or bites. Rabies usually causes seizure/convulsion, paralysis, coma, and finally death to the victim once infected.

2. Is there a cure for rabies???

No, there is no cure for rabies. However, there is a vaccine that can prevent rabies. The problem is that this vaccine is not available everywhere for every one, and it is given to certain people who have high risk of getting rabies because of constant contact with animals (eg. vets/veterinary students). However if you are already bitten by an infected animal, you can still be vaccinated but it must be done as soon as possible before the virus reaches the brain (takes around 10 days).

3. What are the signs and symptoms of rabies in humans???

Headache, fever, feel irritable, confusion, excess salivation, convulsion/seizure, muscle spasms, hallucination, paralysis, and coma.

4. Why mostly dogs transmit rabies to humans???

Dogs are found everywhere, especially stray dogs on the streets. Dogs can bite and cause wounds. Dogs secrete a lot of saliva, and the virus is transmitted through saliva into the bloodstream through wounds. Cats and bats rarely bite humans, even if they do, the bites are rarely serious enough to cause wounds.

5. How does the virus reach the brain?

The virus enters the bite wound and multiplies in the muscle at the site of bite. The virus moves up the peripheral nervous system (any nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord) to the central nervous system, up the spinal cord, finally reaching the brain. When it reaches the brain, it causes all these symptoms like headache, fever, seizure, etc.

6. Is there any other way to treat the poor rabies-infected dogs instead of killing them?

Sorry, no. There is no other way except to kill them.

7. How to know if the dogs are infected with rabies virus?

The infected dogs will be very fierce and ferocious. They will not be friendly to you. Be aware of fierce wild dogs barking, chasing and biting you.

Who discovered beta blocker and H2 receptor antagonist?

Dr. James Whyte Black, a Scottish pharmacologist discovered beta blockers and H2 receptor antagonists which saved millions of people with heart and stomach diseases. He developed the first beta blocker drug called propanolol (generic name), which was marketed as Inderalal (brand name). Then he developed an anti-ulcer drug cimetidine (generic name) marketed as Tagamet (brand name). Cimetidine is an H2 receptor antagonist used to treat stomach ulcers. 

References:
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/23/health/23black.html?_r=0

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)

Deadpool Movie Review

source of pictures: http://www.foxmovies.com/movies/deadpool

On the 9th of February 2016, I watched Deadpool in the TGV cinema. So here is the summary of the movie:

Wade Wilson (Ryan Reynolds) was diagnosed with cancer and was promised by an unknown man that he could be healed from his cancer and be transformed. He was then turned into a hideous freak with superpowers by a man named Francis through a lot of torture. Wade did not have the guts to return home to his girlfriend (Vanessa) because he did not want her to see his ugly face. He made his own costume after various funny attempts and called himself Deadpool. His mission was to hunt down the man who tortured him (Francis) in order to force him to change his face back to normal.

There was a hilarious part that I remember, when the blind woman told Deadpool that 'Love is blind.' after hearing how he did not want to return home to Vanessa because of his ugly face and Deadpool replied 'No. You are blind.' That part made everyone laughed because the woman was indeed blind and those words were right in place.

Vanessa was kidnapped by Francis to lure Deadpool out. Francis pretended to hide behind a hood as if he was Wade Wilson that Vanessa was looking for all these years. He asked another person to call Vanessa out of the bar and then hit her till she fainted. She was then kidnapped and tied up in a transparent cylinder used to torture Wade before by eliminating the oxygen content. Francis used Vanessa's mobile to call Deadpool.

Deadpool then asked for help from a Steel Man and Fire Girl (forgot their names sorry) to hunt Francis down, and together, they managed to find Francis. Deadpool ordered Francis to change his figure back but unfortunately Francis said it cannot be changed. Deadpool then killed him.

That's basically a short summary of the movie. I have never read the Marvel comic so I don't know how the story goes in the comic, but I am pretty sure there are a lot of differences. So, to all those who are going to watch Deadpool, do beware of the vulgar slang used. A lot of F*** words are used throughout the whole movie. It's more of a comedy than a horror movie. Full of actions and killings with lots of humor.

Euthanasia

What do you think of euthanasia? First of all, let me define euthanasia. It is the act of ending a life due to an incurable disease or if the patient is terminally ill. In other words, euthanasia is physician-assisted death. It is not legal in Malaysia, however don't be surprised that it is legal in some countries such as Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. Netherlands was the first country that legalized euthanasia in 2002. In Asian countries, most people are against euthanasia. So are you for or against euthanasia?

I am against euthanasia because human life is precious. Can you buy human life with money? No. Unless you're a horrible kidnapper that loves selling people. I like this statement by Tharmaseelan:

"I personally feel nobody has a right to take a life when he cannot create one. Miracles do happen, what may be considered incurable today may become curable in the near of distant future. We should realize that medical science is still an imperfect and incomplete science."

(source: http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/02/26/euthanasia-and-living-wills-in-malaysia/)

Do you understand? We, human beings do not have the right to take away life that is so precious and is given by God. Only God can create life, so He is the One who decides when the person must go. Here is the most famous bible verse for those everyone including those living and those who are dying:

“For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life.” John 3:16

Trust Jesus, because He has died for us and saved us from our sins. If you believe in Him, then you will be saved. You body may die, but your soul will be saved. You will live with Him in Heaven. Forever. And that's eternal life.

How to Deal with Medical Ethics

Healthcare professionals usually face many ethical dilemmas in their practice especially in hospitals. Sometimes, they do not know whether they should follow their decisions, or follow their patient's decisions. Should there be any serious consequences of a decision made, who is to be blamed? The physician or the patient?

Let's learn about the 4 basic principles of medical ethics:

1. Autonomy
-The patient decides what to do with his/her own body.
-The doctor has to respect the patient's decision even if it appears to be medically wrong.
-For example, the patient has the right to refuse a chemotherapy treatment for his cancer because he does not want to suffer from the side effects. The doctor has to respect the patient's decision to refuse the treatment although the treatment is for the patient's own good.

2. Beneficence
-The healthcare professional knows what is the best for the patient.
-For example, the doctor has to consider both the benefits and harms of a treatment before making the right decision for the patient.

3. Nonmaleficence
-Obeys the Hippocratic Oath that states 'First do no harm',
-Healthcare professional must not cause any harm either intentionally or unintentionally to the patient.
-For example, a doctor must be aware of 'double effect' which means a treatment that is intended for good causes harm to the patient.

4. Justice
-The healthcare professional must be fair when offering treatments to patients.
-The focus must be on the medical care of the patient, not on the financial impact of the healthcare professional.
-However, this can be complicated. For example of issues on justice: Which health professional should help to pay when a patient could not afford a drug treatment?

I hope that all health professionals will always hold on to these 4 principles of ethics in making a decision. Healthcare involves a lot of dilemmas so equip yourselves with these principles for the decision-making process! Good luck and all the best in your medical practice. :)

Medicine in Russia

Most Malaysian want to be doctors, am I right? Whether it is due to genuine interest, peer influence or parental pressure, please consider the real reasons you want to pursue medicine. Majority of those with straight A+ or straight As in SPM or CGPA4.0 in pre-U, would surely choose medicine I can assure you. If they like physics, they'll choose engineering. If they like biology, they'll choose medicine. If you are one of those who choose medicine, do think of the real reason why you want to pursue medicine because it will be asked in every interview. One of the most commonly asked and also the hardest question to answer. About 90% of candidates could not answer that question convincingly. 

If you don't want any interview, consider Russia. You can get in without any interview, you just need to apply to the agent (for example: Medic Ed Consultant Sdn. Bhd) and they will get you the offer letter within a week. It is quite cheap compared to local private unis. Studying in Kursk State Medical University (KSMU) which is one of the top unis in Russia, costs only RM146000. If you are interested in cheap fees for medicine, do consider KSMU. It is recognized by Malaysian gov, MMC, and WHO.   

Here is more info about Russian unis from the Medic Ed website:
http://www.mediced.com.my/russia

FYI, I'm not paid to promote Medic Ed, just kindly sharing to those who want to fulfill their dreams as doctors if they are rejected by public unis, and cannot afford private unis. 

Pre-University Options after SPM

There are many pre-universities in Malaysia that you can choose after your SPM. First of all, make up your mind whether you want to study in public universities, private universities, or overseas. If you choose to study in public universities, there are only 3 pre-university options: matriculation, asasi (foundation) or form 6. If you choose to study overseas, take A Levels, IB Diploma, AUSMAT (australian matriculation) or SAM (south australian matriculation). You may use asasi/matriculation to apply overseas, but there are very limited courses as they are not widely recognized. STPM (form 6) is widely recognized but it is hard to score so not many people use the results to apply overseas. However, you can use any pre-university results to enter private universities.

Below, I will list the pros and cons of the common pre-university routes taken:
1. Matriculation
pros:
-very fast, only 1 year
-very easy to get into public universities
-very easy to score 4.0 and a co-curricular marks of 100 (of course you need to work hard and be active)
-many past year and tutorial questions to practice
-allowance given
-cheap, around RM550 for the whole course

cons:
-you may have to live very far away (eg. you are from Terengganu but you get matric in Johor)
-long hours of classes, 8-5pm, sometimes there are night classes too
-if you get below CGPA 4.0, you can say goodbye to your first choice in public universities especially for critical courses like medicine, dentistry and pharmacy.

2. Asasi
pros:
-very fast, normally 1 year
-you can enter degree in that specific university you did your asasi in
-you get allowance too
-exposed to uni life at an earlier age, step into uni at the age of 18

cons:
-there is a possibility you may NOT get your first choice in that uni
-you cannot apply to other public uni (except for PASUM and asasi UiTM)
-you don't get many friends from other uni during degree, unlike those from matric have friends almost everywhere
-maybe harder to get? you need really good SPM results
-very limited places

3. Form 6 (STPM)
pros:
-extremely cheap
-the only pre-U that can enter public, private and overseas uni
-you will do so much better than your matric peers in uni because 'susah-susah dahulu, senang-senang kemudian'
-get to enjoy school life (unless you hate school)

cons:
-1.5 years, around 2 years if include the holidays and waiting time for results
-harder to score (doesn't mean its impossible)
-you might not get your first choice in uni if your results are not really good
-you'll be 1 year older than matric peers in your 1st year in uni

4. A Levels
pros:
-recognized internationally, higher chance to go overseas for degree
-easier to score excellent results
-get to enjoy college life

cons:
-expensive!! around RM30k++
-cannot enter public uni (if you're aiming for overseas don't look at public uni)

As a conclusion, whatever pre-U that you take, think wisely what you want to do and where you want to go, so that you won't regret in the future. :)

Mechanisms of Apoptosis

Apoptosis is programmed cell death. It is the result of activation of enzymes (caspases). The two pathways of apoptosis are the extrinsic pathway and the intrinsic pathway.

Extrinsic (death receptor) pathway

1.       Initiated when a TNF receptor (eg. CD95/Fas) binds to its ligand CD95L.
2.       Triggers multiple receptors to aggregate together at cell surface.
3.       This attracts an adapter protein FADD (Fas-Associated Death Domain).
4.       The protein recruits procaspase 8 to form the death-inducing signalling complex (DISC).
5.       Procaspase 8 is cleaved into active caspase 8.
6.       Caspase 8 activates caspase 3 (an executioner caspase) to initiate cell degradation.
7.       Caspase 8 also cleaves Bid protein to tBid (truncated Bid).
8.       tBid acts as a signal on mitochondria membrane to facilitate release of cytochrome c in the intrinsic pathway.

Intrinsic (mitochondria) pathway

1.       Triggered by stimuli such as deprivation of growth factors/survival signals/ exposure to agents that damage DNA/excessive accumulation of misfolded proteins.
2.       Sensors (BH3 proteins) of the Bcl2 family are activated, which in turn activate pro-apoptotic members called Bax and Bak.
3.       Bax and Bak cause cytochrome c and other mitochondrial proteins to leak out.
4.       These sensors inhibit anti apoptotic molecules Bcl2 and Bcl_XL , enhancing leakage.
5.       Cytochrome c leaks into the cytosol where it binds to APAF-1 (apoptotic protease activating factor 1) forming an apoptosome which in turn activates caspase 9.
6.       Caspase 9 cleaves and activates the executioner caspase (caspase 3) that initiates degradation.
7.       The activation of caspase cascade leads to nuclear fragmentation.

References:
1. Kumar V, Abbas A. K, Aster J.C. Robbins Basic Pathology. 2013. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders.
2. http://www.scq.ubc.ca/apoptosis/

  

formation of pollen grains, embryo sac, and process of double fertilisation SPM notes

Formation of pollen grains

1.     Pollen grains are formed in the anther

2.     An anther has 4 pollen sacs

3.     Each pollen sac contains hundreds of cells called pollen mother cells

4.     Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis to form 4 haploid microspores

5.     The nucleus of each microspore divides by mitosis to form a tube nucleus and a generative nucleus

6.     The microspores develop into pollen grains

Formation of embryo sac

1.     Ovule develops from ovarian tissue

2.     Ovule has diploid embryo sac mother cell

3.     Embryo sac mother cell undergoes meiosis to form a row of four haploid cells called megaspores

4.     3 of 4 megaspores degenerate, leaving 1 in the ovule

5.     Megaspore continues to grow and enlarges

6.     Nucleus of megaspore undergoes mitosis 3 times to form 8 haploid nuclei

7.     3 of the 8 nuclei migrate to one end to form antipodal cells

8.     2 move to the centre to form polar nuclei

9.     1 of the 3 nuclei nearest to the micropyle develops into an egg cell flanked by 2 synergid cells

10.  The structure formed is called an embryo sac

Process of Double Fertilisation

When the pollen grain lands on the stigma, fertilisation is initiated.

Sucrose solution secreted by the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate and form a pollen tube.

The pollen tube grows down the style towards the ovule.

The generative nucleus divides by mitosis into two male nuclei.

The male nuclei move down the pollen tube led by the tube nucleus.

When the pollen tube reaches the ovary, it penetrates the ovule through the micropyle.

The tube nucleus disintegrates, leaving a clear passage for the male nuclei to enter the embryo sac.

Double fertilisation occurs in the ovule. One male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote while the other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form triploid nucleus.

After fertilisation, the diploid zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis to form an embryo while the triploid nucleus forms an endosperm which provides nutrients for the growing embryo.

The ovule develops into a seed while the ovary develops into a fruit.

We humans never appreciate what we have

Isn't it obvious? We always want what other people have. We can't see the bright side of what we have. We prefer to look on the dark side of what we have. This is the attitude that we all have, admit it! When we look at rich people, we would wish we are rich. When we look at lucky people who get everything, we would wish we are lucky. When we look at successful people, we would wish we are successful like them. When we look at champions in competitions, we would wish we are the champion. When we look at pretty people, we would wish we are pretty. Isn't that typical human-thinking? We look at those who are better than us, but never look at those who are worse than us! Why don't we look at those who are poorer than us, unluckier, less successful than us, losers in competitions, and less pretty? If you want to feel better, don't compare yourselves with those who are better, but compare yourselves to those who are less. If we keep comparing ourselves with those whose life seems to be perfect, we will never achieve ultimate happiness even at the end of our life! Just take some time to think about yourselves. Who do you normally compare yourselves with? Your smarter friend? Your richer friend? Your luckier friend? Your stronger friend? Your prettier friend? Just ponder about it. We, humans living on this temporary planet, want to be the best. The best among the best. And we compare ourselves with every other human who are better. This makes us forget about the less fortunate but only care about ourselves. It is time to change our mentality. Why don't we start appreciating everything we have?

DNA Fingerprinting

1. Tissue samples are obtained from the criminal scene and DNA is extracted

2. A restriction enzyme is added to the DNA to cut it into fragments

3. DNA fragments are separated according to size during a process called electrophoresis using an agarose gel

4. An alkali is added to separate the double stranded DNA into single strands

5. Each single strand is transferred to a nylon membrane and a radioactive probe is added to it

6. A banding pattern appears

7. An x-ray film is produced and the positions of black bands are compared with the part of DNA treated with radioactive probe

Formation of pollen grains

Pollen grains are formed in the anther. An anther has 4 pollen sacs. Each pollen sac contains hundreds of cells called pollen mother cells. Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis to form 4 haploid microspores. The nucleus of each microspore divides by mitosis to form a tube nucleus and a generative nucleus. 

Pembinaan negara bangsa

Itali

-itali terbahagi kpd bebrapa buah wilayah

-wilayah venetia dan lombardy di utara dikuasai austria

-org itali ingin menyatukan wilayah2 mereka di bwh sebuah pemerintahan dan menghalau orang austria dari bumi itali

-Count camillo benso de cavour berusaha menyatukan itali dgn mengamalkan realpolitik

-Count camillo benso de cavour sgt menyanjung penyatuan itali berlandaskan pemerintahan monarki

-beliau mengadakan kerjasama dgn napolean 3 bg menentang austria

-hasil bantuan tentera napolean 3, itali berjaya mengalahkan austria

-count camillo memperoleh sokong majoriti rakyat utk menyatukan itali melalui pungutan suara

-pd 1966 wilayah venetia dipulangkan kpd itali sbg membalas jasa itali membantu prussia menewaskan austria

-pd 1870 perancis mengundurkan tenteranya dan count camillo mengmbil peluang ini utk menyatukan rom dan itali

-penyatuan ini membentuk negara bangsa itali

Jerman

-otto eduard von bismarck mengamalkan realpolitik dan politik darah dan besi

-Menggunakan pelbagai taktik spt tipu helah, pemalsuan dokumen, provokasi, penipuan dan ugutan utk mencetuskan peperangan 

-matlamatnya untuk menyatukan jerman

-mengamalkan sistem kediktatoran yang diterima oleh rakyat utk menyatukan jerman

-menggunakan isu membenci kuasa asing utk memenangi dan membangkitkan semangat rakyat prussia di medan tempur

-melancarkan tiga peperangan menentang musuhnya

-iaitu denmark, austria dan perancis

Madinah

-pembentukan kerajaan islam di madinah merupakan contoh penyatuan melalui prinsip islam

-Nabi muhammad saw menyusun perlembagaan terlebih dahulu sblum mengasaskan kerajaan madinah

-piagam madinah berjaya menyatukan pelbagai kaum iaitu yahudi, kristian dan arab

-menggunakan cara diplomasi, musyawarah, dan permuafakatan

-baginda berjaya membentuk kerajaan islam yg kuat

-kejayaan ini membuktikan wujudnya kerjasama antara pemimpin dgn pemimpin dan antara pemimpin dgn rakyat

who is the first man who walked in space?

First spacewalk was performed by cosmonaut Alexei A. Leonov in April 1965. He was followed by US astronaut Edward H. White II in June of the same year while flying aboard Gemini 4.
Cosmonaut Alexel Leonov from Voshkod 2
* The first space walk was carried out byAlexey Leonov on March 18 1965. * The first space walk by an American was by Edward White on June 3 1965. * The first moon walk was by Neil Armstrong on July 20th 1969
The first man ever to make a space walk was USSR cosmonaut Alexei Leonov.
Leonov's space walk occurred on 18 March 1965, when he spent 10 minutes outside the space craft Voskhod 2, while his fellow astronaut Pavel Belyayev waited inside.
Soviet/Russian. Alexey Arkhipovich Leonov (Russian: Алексе́й Архи́пович Лео́нов; born May 30, 1934 in Listvyanka, Kemerovo Oblast, Soviet Union) is a retired Soviet/Russian cosmonaut and Air Force General who, on March 18, 1965, became the first person to leave the confines of a pressurized spacecraft to perform what is called a "walk in space" or extravehicular activity (EVA).

IS COMET A STAR?

The short answer:

No they are completely different, a comet is an evaporating ball of ice and rock, a star is a swirling ball of hot gas.

The long answer:

• Comets are cold and small, 1 to 50 miles across and are made up of ice and dust. Like a big dirty snowball. The sun shoots out light and some particles too. The tail you see forms when the comet is close enough for light from the sun to warm it enough so some of the comets surface evaporates. The evaporated water creates a long trail of mist. The water mist is pushed away from the comet by the force of particles also coming from the sun. So the comet looks a lot like a fog machine in the wind on earth. Thin stream of particles coming from the sun act like an incredibly weak wind. It's not really wind because there's no air in space. But these particles coming from the sun are moving fast and have just enough force to make the misty comet make a tail of mist and look how it does.

• Stars are huge and hot. The sun is our star. The sun is around 869,919,669 Miles across and makes up 99% of the mass of our solar system. It's the biggest thing around for a really long distance.

Credits: http://www.answers.com/Q/Is_a_comet_a_star

What is the Hottest Star?

Posted in: Astronomy by Fraser Cain (Comments Off)

Eta Carinae Credit: Gemini Observatory artwork by Lynette Cook

Stars can range in temperature, from the relatively cool red dwarfs to superhot blue stars. So what is the hottest star in the Universe?

First, let’s talk a bit about temperature. The color of a star is a function of its temperature. If a star looks red, that means its surface temperature is approximately 2,500 Kelvin. Just for comparison, our Sun, which actually looks white from space, measures about 6,000 Kelvin. The hotter the star, the further up the spectrum you go. The hottest stars are the blue stars. A star appears blue once its surface temperature gets above 10,000 Kelvin, or so, a star will appear blue to our eyes.

So the hottest stars in the Universe are going to be a blue star, and we know they’re going to be massive. So the question is, how massive can stars get? One example is the star Rigel, in the constellation Orion. Rigel is thought to have 17 times the mass of the Sun, and puts out 40,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. It’s surface temperature is a mere 11,000 Kelvin. Another star in Orion, Bellatrix, has a temperature of 21,500 Kelvin. That’s even hotter.

But the hottest known stars in the Universe are the blue hypergiant stars. These are stars with more than 100 times the mass of the Sun. One of the best known examples is Eta Carinae, located about 7,500 light-years from the Sun. Eta Carinae could be as large as 180 times the radius of the Sun, and its surface temperature is 36,000-40,000 Kelvin.

Just for comparison, 40,000 Kelvin is about 72,000 degrees F.

So it’s the blue hypergiants, like Eta Carinae, which are probably the hottest stars in the Universe.

the life and structure of a star

Introduction Stars come in many different shapes, sizes, and colors, each of which signifies a different type and life cycle. All stars are born in the same manner - they begin as nebulae, clouds of dust, hydrogen, and helium. These clouds slowly condense as they age, forming small hot areas of gas called protostars. The temperature of these protostars increases until nuclear fusion begins in the cores. At that point, a young star is born. The stars' sizes and eventual fates are determined by the heat, size, shape, and location of the original protostars. Stars formed in this manner generally begin their lives in clusters, but then are influenced by other objects around them and slowly drift apart. Mature stars are classified and their origins revealed by their masses, sizes, temperatures, colors, and magnitudes.

Blue Stars Blue stars (such as Rigel and Regulus) are extremely hot, with average temperatures of 20 000-45 000 ° F. These stars are formed from very hot, large, and dense cores. It takes them about 100 million years, a relatively short time, to use up all their nuclear fuel. At this point, a blue star slowly expands to become a blue supergiant (Rigel) or an even larger blue-white supergiant. After millions of years, they cool down to form red supergiants, such as Betelguese. In death, these supergiants will follow one of two major courses of action, depending on their mass. Those of great mass tend to be unstable and will explode, forming a supernova during which brightness is dramatically increased and the outer layers of the star thrown off into space. At the same time, the core of the star implodes, resulting in a dense remnant called a neutron star. These neutron stars rotate and send out pulses of radio waves, thereby earning the name pulsar. The most massive supergiants follow the same course with one exception - the neutron star they form is so dense that nothing, not even light, can escape its gravitational pull. These dense star remnants are called black holes.

Yellow Stars Yellow stars actually come in three colors that correspond to their average temperatures and position in their life cycle: yellow-white (9000-11 000 ° F), orange (6500-9000 ° F), and red (5500-6500 ° F). Examples of these stars are the sun, Aldebaran, and Antares, respectively. These stars have relatively long life spans of about 10000 million years. When fusion eventually stops in the cores of these stars, expansion takes place and larger, cooler, more luminous red giants such as Aldebaran (actually orange-colored) are formed. These giants will simply extend their outer layers to form planetary nebulae, such as the Ring Nebula in Lyra. At the center of such a nebula will remain a small white dwarf, which is very dense and contains most of the original mass of the star. White dwarves do not generate their own heat, but instead radiate what heat they have left over a period of thousands of millions of years until they cool into red dwarves and eventually cold, dead black dwarves. (Note: under certain circumstances, white dwarves can become neutron stars; see Supersoft X-Ray Sources.)

The Hertzprung-Russell Diagram The Hertzprung-Russell (H-R) diagram, named after the two astronomers who developed it in the early 1900's, is the plot of stars' temperature against their brightness. The diagram reveals a pattern of stars that follow a curved band from the upper left to the bottom right corner of the diagram. This band is called the main sequence and the stars that make it up are called dwarves (Types of dwarves were described above). The exception to this rule is the location of the white dwarves, which are small, faint, and very dense due to their origins in planetary nebulae. Giants and supergiants, which are brighter than other stars of the same temperature, are located in the upper right corner of the graph. Note: Black dwarves and black holes are not plotted on the diagram because these star types had not been discovered when Hertzprung and Russell developed their diagram.

The Structure of Stars in Their Prime Stars at various stages of their life cycle have very different structures; however, stars in the main sequence have a general structure that is roughly the same as, and is exemplified by, our sun (shown in the diagram). The sun, like all stars, is made up of hydrogen and helium gases, which undergo nuclear fusion in the hot, fiery core. The core, at a temperature of 15 000 000 ° C, fuels the sun's shine and is made entirely of gases. From the core, energy moves out toward the surface of the star through the convection zone, an area in which gas rises and sinks in a manner similar to that of gas bubbles rising in boiling water. The sun's surface, its outer layer of gases, is much cooler than the rest of the sun at 5500 ° C. The chromosphere is a thin and spiky layer of gas outside the surface of the sun. During eclipses, the chromosphere can be seen as a reddish glow. The corona is an even thinner layer of gas that surrounds the chromosphere. It is much hotter than the sun's surface at 2 000 000 ° C, possibly because of the energy from the sun's magnetism. The solar wind, a steady stream of ions and electrons form the sun, is actually an extension of the corona. Large loops of gas that extend from the surface of the sun are called prominences and can stand up to 30 000 km high. Prominences are generally short-lived and fall to the surface again after only a few hours, but they can be held in position by the magnetic field for as long as several months. Sunspots, phenomena related to prominences, are cooler areas on the sun's surface where the magnetic field is especially strong. Sunspots usually appear according to a regular cycle that rotates on an 11-year basis. The most recent peak of the cycle occurred in 1991. When the sunspot cycle is at its peak, solar flares with temperatures of up to 4 000 000 ° C can erupt and last anywhere from ten minutes to an hour. Solar flares can speed up the solar wind and cause a magnetic storm on earth. Solar flares are also responsible for auroras, or the northern and southern lights.

---

Created by Dan Corbett, Kate Stafford, and Patrick Wright for ThinkQuest.

Bahasa Melayu Sebagai Alat Perpaduan

 Manusia berkomunikasi di antara satu sama lain melalui pelbagai cara seperti penggunaan lisan, tulisan dan simbol. Dalam apa cara sekali pun manusia berkomunikasi, matlamat utama adalah untuk memahami di antara satu sama lain. Persefahaman ini adalah sangat penting khasnya untuk negara seperti Malaysia yang terdiri daripada pelbagai lapisan masyarakat.

Melayu, Cina dan India merupakan tiga bangsa utama di Malaysia. Melayu merupakan kaum majoriti  dengan peratusan penduduk yang melebihi 50%. Memandangkan Malaysia terdiri daripada masyarakat majmuk, maka perlulah adanya satu bahasa utama yang difahami oleh semua kaum. Kesefahaman melalui penggunaan bahasa yang utama akan menjamin suatu masyarakat yang bersatu padu.

Perpaduan merupakan agenda yang penting semasa Malaysia mencapai kemerdekaan pada tahun 1957. Dalam penggubalan Perlembagaan Persekutuan, Bahasa Melayu telah diiktiraf dan diistiharkan sebagai bahasa kebangsaan serta bahasa rasmi negara sebagaimana yang termaktub dalam Perkara 152. Tujuan utama penggunaan Bahasa Melayu adalah sebagai alat perpaduan. Dengan adanya satu masyarakat yang bersatu padu melalui penggunaan Bahasa Melayu, maka Malaysia akan terus makmur, maju dan disegani ramai di persada antarabangsa.

Lantaran itu, marilah kita memperkasa penggunaan Bahasa Melayu dalam semua aspek kehidupan di Malaysia, daripada iklan dan tanda nama di jalan raya sehinggalah kepada penggunaan Bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa pengantar di semua institusi pendidikan. Bak kata ungkapan “Bahasa Jiwa Bangsa”, mengetengah dan menjiwai Bahasa Melayu sebagai alat perpaduan akan memajukan bangsa Malaysia ke mercu kemakmuran. Bahasa Melayu Perkasa, Alat Perpaduan Negara!

(227 patah perkataan)

GERAKAN ISLAH MENCETUSKAN KESEDARAN KEBANGSAAN

1. pd awl kurun ke-20, golongan berpendidikan dari timur tengah khususnya dari Universiti Al-Azhar telah memimpin gerakan kesedaran di tanah melayu.
2. mereka terpengaruh dgn perjuangan Sayid Jamaluddin al-Afghani dan Syeikh Muhammad Abduh yg ingin memulihkan ajaran dan pegangan Islam.

Sayid Jamaluddin al-Afghani

Syeikh Muhammad Abduh

3. Golongan ini telah memulakan Gerakan Islah di tanah melayu dan dikenali sbg Kaum Muda.
4. antara tokoh penting gerakan ini ialah:

-Syed Syeikh Ahmad al-Hadi
-Syeikh Muhammad Jalaluddin
-Haji Abbas Muhammad Taha

5. Idea gerakan mereka disebarkan melalui majalah Al-Imam dan penubuhan madrasah.
6. Idea Kaum Muda ini ditentang oleh golongan Kaum Tua.
7. Kaum Tua merupakan ulama serta pegawai agama yg berpegang teguh kpd agama Islam dan adat. contohnya, Haji Abdul Latif(melaka) dan Tok Kenali(kelantan).

madrasah yg diasaskan oleh kaum muda

pulau pinang- madrasah al-masyur al-islamiah
perak- madrasah al-diniah kampung lalang, padang rengas
        - madrasah il-ihya-assyarif, gunung semenggol

8. kaum tua membidas idea kaum muda melalui akhbar Suara Benar dan Lidah Benar.

Al-Imam
*diterbitkan pd tahun 1906 di singapura
*bermaksud 'pemimpin' atau 'ketua'
*dihentikan penerbitan pd tahun 1908
tujuan: '....mengingatkan mereka yg lalai dan menjagakan mereka yg tidur dan menunjukkan mereka yg sesat dan menyampaikan suara yg menyerukan dgn kebaikan...'
*saranan:
-menyeru org melayu berpegang kmbali kpd ajaran al-Quran dan hadis
-menekankan kepentingan ilmu utk memajukan bangsa
-pelajaran sejarah diberikan penekanan krna is dpt memberi pngajaran dn ikhtibar
-menggesa kaum wanita diberi peluang mendptkan pendidikan
-menasihati ibu bapa supaya memberi pendidikan yg sempurna kpd anak2
-menyarankan agar org islam meninggalkan kepercayaan yg mengarut yg bleh menghalang kemajuan

PERKEMBANGAN NEGARA LUAR MEMBERI INSPIRASI PERJUANGAN

pengaruh luar negara:
-turki
-mesir
-india
-jepun
-indonesia
-filipina
-china

GERAKAN KEBANGKITAN ISLAM DI TURKI
1. menjelang akhir kurun ke-19, gerakan kebangkitan Islam telah berlaku di timur tengah.
2. kebangkitan ini disbbkan empayar Islam Turki Uthmaniyah telah dipecahbelahkan dan dikuasai oleh kuasa2 barat.
3. penjajah kuasa2 barat telah mengakibatkan kemerosotan emoayar islam turki uthmaniyah menjelang awal kurun ke-20
4. berikutan kehadiran pengaruh barat di turki, tercetusnya gerakan Pan-Islam yg bertujuan utk:
a) menyatukan seluruh umat Islam
b) menentang penjajahan kuasa barat
5. umat islam di negara2 timur tengah, india, dan asia tengara telah erpengaruh dgn gerakan itu utk menentang kuasa asing
6. umat islam di tanah melayu turut terpengaruh dgn gerakan itu.

GERAKAN ISLAH DI MESIR
1. gerakan islah, atau gerakan pemulihan islam merupakan gerakan yg bertujuan utk:
a) menyeru umat isla kembali berpegang kpd ajaran islam yg sebenar dngn berasaskan al-Quran dan Hadis utk mencapai kemajuan
b) menyeru umat islam bersatu padu utk menentang penjajahan kuasa barat di negara islam
2. gerakan islah di mesir dipelopori oleh:
a) Sayid Jamaluddin al-Afghani
b) Syeikh Muhammad Abduh
3. gerakan ini tercetus akibat penjajahan british terhadap mesir pd tahun 1882
4. gerakan islah di mesir telah mempengaruhi pelajar2 tanah melayu yg menuntut di mesir
5. mereka telah menyebarkan perjuangan gerakan ini setelah mereka kembali ke tanah air

GERAKAN JEPUN MENGALAHKAN RUSIA
1 .jepun telah berjaya mengalahkan rusia dlm perang rusia-jepun yg berlaku pd tahun 1905.
2. kejayaan ini merupakan kali pertama dlm sejarah moden, sebuah negara asia berjaya mengalahkan sebuah kuasa eropah
2. kejayaan ini menyemarakkan semangat kebangsaan utk menentang penjajahan barat di tanah air mereka, termasuk tanah melayu

KEJAYAAN REVOLUSI CHINA 1911
1. revolusi china yg tercetus pd tahun 1911 dipimpin oleh Dr.Sun Yat Sen.

Dr. Sun Yat Sen

2. revolusi ini telah berjaya menggulingan kerajaan Manchu dan seterusnya sebuah republik china ditubuhkan.
3. kejayaan revolusi china telah membangkitkan kesedaran penduduk tanah melayu utk menentang british

GERAKAN KESEDARAN KBANGSAAN DI FILIPINA, INDIA, DAN INDONESIA
1. perjuangan filipina menentang sepanyol dipimpin oleh Joze Rizal
2. Joze Rizal telah menubuhkan Liga Filipina utk:
a) memajukan org filipina
b) menuntut penjajah sepanyol memberikan layanan adil kpd rakyat filipina

Jose Rizal

3. di india, Mahatma Gandhi mengetuai Kongres Kebangsaan India utk membebaskan india drpd penjajahan british

Mahatma Gandhi

4. di indonesia, Parti Nasional Indonesia yg dipimpin oleh Soekarno memperjuangkan kebebasan Indonesia drpd penjajahan belanda.

Soekarno

5. gerakan penentangan terhadap penjajahan barat yg berlaku di filipina, india, dan indonesia telah memberi inspirasi kpd penduduk tanah melayu utk menentang penjajahan british.